Innovation isn’t always a straight-line process – breakthroughs often emerge from unexpected events, mistakes, or creative reuses of existing ideas. In this discussion, we’ll explore three concepts that highlight these non-linear paths to discovery: serendipity, error, and exaptation. Each concept offers a unique lens on how innovations can arise, illustrated by an example from scientific research.
Serendipity: The Power of Happy Accidents
Serendipity refers to finding something valuable when you weren’t deliberately looking for it. In innovation, chance observations or accidents can lead to breakthroughs when a curious, prepared mind recognizes their significance. Unlike planned experimentation, serendipitous discoveries feel like “happy accidents” – unplanned, fortunate events that open new directions.
Example: A classic case of serendipity is Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin. 1928 Fleming was researching bacteria and left the petri dishes uncleaned while on vacation. Upon return, he noticed mold contaminating a dish; strikingly, bacteria around the mold had been killed off (Gaynes, 2017). Instead of discarding this “failed” experiment, Fleming investigated further. He realized the mold (Penicillium) produced a substance that halted bacterial growth, hinting at a potential antibiotic. This chance observation – a moldy petri dish – developed penicillin a decade later and revolutionized medicine (Gaynes, 2017). Fleming’s curious response to an accident exemplifies how serendipity can drive innovation by turning an unexpected incident into a world-changing discovery.
Learning from Error: When Mistakes Spur Innovation
While serendipity is about unintended observations, innovation through error stems from mistakes or failures that yield new insights. These are the “brilliant blunders”—errors in experiment or design that reveal something novel. The key is that an actual mistake was made, distinguishing it from pure chance. A prepared innovator can learn from such errors rather than seeing them as mere failures.
Example: The invention of the implantable cardiac pacemaker was born from an error. In 1956, engineer Wilson Greatbatch was building an oscillator circuit and accidentally used the wrong type of resistor. The circuit began emitting a steady electrical pulse – an unexpected result that caught Greatbatch’s attention(University at Buffalo, n.d.). Recognizing the significance of this rhythmic signal, he realized it could be used to drive a human heartbeat. Greatbatch had essentially stumbled onto a way to regulate heart rhythm electronically. Through refining this “mistaken” circuit, he created the first implanted pacemaker, a device that has saved millions of lives (University at Buffalo, n.d.). This story shows how a simple technical mistake, approached with insight, can spark a groundbreaking innovation.
Exaptation: Repurposing for New Uses
Exaptation describes repurposing an existing idea or tool for a completely new function. Initially, a term from evolutionary biology (where a trait evolved for one purpose finds a new use), in innovation, exaptation means taking something designed or developed for Problem A and creatively applying it to Problem B. This often happens when inventors connect domains or an existing technology finds unexpected utility beyond its original intent.
Example: Thomas Edison’s electric pen was invented in the 1870s as a document-copying device, but it found new life in a different field. The electric pen’s design – a motorized needle that could rapidly punch holes – “survived in an unexpected form” when a tattoo artist named Samuel O’Reilly realized it could be adapted to inject ink into skin. In 1891, O’Reilly modified Edison’s device to create the first electric tattoo machine (Thomas A. Edison Papers, n.d.). This is a striking exaptation: a contraption intended for office work became a tool for body art. The core technology didn’t change, but its purpose did. Similarly, many modern innovations arise this way. For instance, the Global Positioning System (GPS) was initially developed for military navigation. Yet, it was later opened up and repurposed for civilian navigation, mapping, and countless smartphone applications – a technology built for one context evolving into a foundation of everyday life. Exaptation highlights how creative thinking can unlock new uses for existing inventions, driving innovation by bridging unrelated needs.
In summary, serendipity, error, and exaptation underscore that innovation can spring from the unexpected. A chance encounter in the lab, a failed experiment, or a clever reuse of an old idea might be the catalyst for the next big breakthrough. By staying curious, open-minded, and willing to learn from surprises and mistakes, scientists and technologists can turn unforeseen events into opportunities, sparking advances that fuel future discussion and development in technology.
References
Gaynes, R. (2017). The discovery of penicillin—New insights after more than 75 years of clinical use. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 23(5), 849–853. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2305.161556
University at Buffalo. (n.d.). Internal pacemaker. Retrieved May 15, 2025, from https://www.buffalo.edu/research/about-us/units.host.html/content/shared/smbs/research_highlights/pacemaker.detail.html
Thomas A. Edison Papers. (n.d.). Electric pen. Retrieved May 15, 2025, from https://edison.rutgers.edu/life-of-edison/inventions?view=article&id=533:electric-pen
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